TOM BETSY, D.C & JIM KEOGH
A SELF-TEACHING GUIDE
M.D
 |
| Microbiology Demystified |
I would like to acknowledge my mentor, colleague, and friend Professor Robert
Highley for all his encouragement and technical support in the production of
this book; my friend Ms. Joan Sisto for all her hours of computer work; and my
friend and coauthor Professor Jim Keogh for asking me to help write this book.
Thank you.
DR. TOM BETSY
Professor Robert Highley has done a magnificent job as technical editor on this
project. His diligence and attention to detail has made Microbiology Demystified
a rewarding addition to every microbiology student’s library.
JIM KEOGH
Introduction
When you hear the words “germ,” “bacteria,” and “virus” you might cringe, running
for the nearest sink to wash your hands. These words may bring back memories
of when you caught a cold or the flu—never a pleasant experience. Germs,
bacteria, viruses and other microscopic organisms are called microorganisms, or
microbes for short. And as you’ll learn throughout this book, some microbes
cause disease while others help fight it.
Think for a moment. Right now there are thousands of tiny microbes living
on the tip of your finger in a world that is so small that it can only be visited by
using a microscope. In this book we’ll show you how to visit this world and how
to interact with these tiny creatures that call the tip of your finger home.
The microscopic world was first visited in the late 1600s by the Dutch merchant
and amateur scientist Antoni van Leeuwenhoek. He was able to see living
microorganisms by using a single-lens microscope. We’ve come a long way
since Van Leeuwenhoek’s first visit. Today scientists are able to see through
some microbes and study the organelles that bring them to life.
It wasn’t until the Golden Age of Microbiology between 1857 and 1914 when
scientists such as Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch made a series of discoveries
that rocked the scientific community. During this period scientists identified
microbes that caused diseases, learned how to cure those diseases, and then prevented
them from occurring through the use of immunization.
Scientists were able to achieve these remarkable discoveries by using culturing
techniques to grow colonies of microbes in the laboratory. Once microbes
could be grown at will, scientists focused their experiments on ways to slow that
growth and stop microbes in their tracks—killing the microbe and curing the disease
caused by the microbe.
Culturing microbes is central to the study of microbiology. You’ll be using
many of the same culturing techniques described in this book to colonize
microbes in your college laboratory. We provide step-by-step instructions on how to do this.
for the nearest sink to wash your hands. These words may bring back memories
of when you caught a cold or the flu—never a pleasant experience. Germs,
bacteria, viruses and other microscopic organisms are called microorganisms, or
microbes for short. And as you’ll learn throughout this book, some microbes
cause disease while others help fight it.
Think for a moment. Right now there are thousands of tiny microbes living
on the tip of your finger in a world that is so small that it can only be visited by
using a microscope. In this book we’ll show you how to visit this world and how
to interact with these tiny creatures that call the tip of your finger home.
The microscopic world was first visited in the late 1600s by the Dutch merchant
and amateur scientist Antoni van Leeuwenhoek. He was able to see living
microorganisms by using a single-lens microscope. We’ve come a long way
since Van Leeuwenhoek’s first visit. Today scientists are able to see through
some microbes and study the organelles that bring them to life.
It wasn’t until the Golden Age of Microbiology between 1857 and 1914 when
scientists such as Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch made a series of discoveries
that rocked the scientific community. During this period scientists identified
microbes that caused diseases, learned how to cure those diseases, and then prevented
them from occurring through the use of immunization.
Scientists were able to achieve these remarkable discoveries by using culturing
techniques to grow colonies of microbes in the laboratory. Once microbes
could be grown at will, scientists focused their experiments on ways to slow that
growth and stop microbes in their tracks—killing the microbe and curing the disease
caused by the microbe.
Culturing microbes is central to the study of microbiology. You’ll be using
many of the same culturing techniques described in this book to colonize
microbes in your college laboratory. We provide step-by-step instructions on how to do this.
You would find it difficult to live without the aid of microbes. For example,
living inside your intestines are colonies of microorganisms. Just this thought is
enough to make your skin crawl. As frightful as this thought might be, however,
these microbes actually assist your body in digesting food. That is, you might
have difficulty digesting some foods if these microbes did not exist.
Microbes in your intestines are beneficial to you as long as they remain
in your intestines. However, you’ll become very ill should they decide to
wander into other parts of your body. Don’t become too concerned—these
microbes tend to stay at home unless your intestines are ruptured as a result of trauma.
By the end of this book you’ll learn about the different types of microbes,
how to identify them by using a microscope, and how to cultivate colonies
of microbes.
A Look Inside
Microbiology can be challenging to learn unless you follow the step-by-step
approach that is used in Microbiology Demystified. Topics are presented in an
order in which many students like to learn them—starting with basic components
and then gradually moving on to those that are more complex.
Each chapter follows a time-tested formula that explains topics in an easyto-
read style. You can then compare your knowledge with what you’re expected
to know by taking chapter tests and the final exam. There is little room
for you to go adrift.
CHAPTER 1: THE WORLD OF THE MICROORGANISM
You’ll begin your venture into the microscopic world of microbes by learning
the fundamentals. These are the terms and concepts that all students need to
understand before they can embark on more advanced topics, such as cultivating
their own microbes.
In this chapter, you will be introduced to the science of microbiology with a
look back in time to a period when little was known about microbes except that
some of them could kill people. You’ll also learn about the critical accomplishments
made in microbiology that enable scientists to understand and develop
cures for disease.
CHAPTER 2: THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
OF MICROORGANISMS
Chemistry is a major factor in microbiology because microbes are made up of
chemical elements. Scientists are able to destroy microbes by breaking them
down into their chemical elements and then disposing of those elements.
Before you can understand how this process works, you must be familiar with
the chemical principles related to microbiology. You’ll learn about these chemical
principles in this chapter.
CHAPTER 3: OBSERVING MICROORGANISMS
“Wash the germs from your hands!” That was the cry of every mom who knew
that hand washing is the best way to prevent sickness. Most kids balked at hand
washing simply because they couldn’t see the germs on their hands.
We’ll show you how to see germs and other microbes in this chapter by using a
microscope. You’ll learn everything you need to know to bring microbes into clear
focus so you can see with a microscope what you can’t see with the naked eye.
CHAPTER 4: PROKARYOTIC CELLS AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS
It is time to get down and personal with two common microbe cells. These are
prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. These names are probably unfamiliar to
you, but they won’t be by the time you’re finished reading this chapter.
Prokaryotic cells are bacteria cells and eukaryotic cells are cells of animals,
plants, algae, fungi, and protozoa. Each carries out the six life processes that all
living things have in common. In this chapter you’ll learn about how prokaryotes
and eukaryotes carry out these life processes.
CHAPTER 5: THE CHEMICAL METABOLISM
“It’s my slow metabolism! That’s why I can’t shed a few pounds.” This is a great
excuse for being unable to lose weight, but the reason our metabolisms are slow
is because we tend not to exercise enough.
In this chapter, you’ll learn about the biochemical reactions that change food
into energy—collectively called metabolism—and how the cell is able to convert
nutrients into energy.
CHAPTER 6: MICROBIAL GROWTH
AND CONTROLLING MICROBIAL GROWTH
You and microbes need nutrients to grow—chemical nutrients such as carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. However, not all microbes need the same
chemical nutrients. For example, some require oxygen while others can thrive in
an oxygen-free environment.
You’ll learn in this chapter how to classify microbes by the chemical nutrients
they need to survive. You’ll also learn how to use this knowledge to grow
microbes and control their growth in the laboratory.
CHAPTER 7: MICROBIAL GENETICS
Just like us, microbes inherit genetic traits from their species’ previous generations.
Genetic traits are instructions on how to everything to stay alive. Some instructions
are passed along to the next generation while other instructions are not.
In this chapter you’ll learn how microorganisms inherit genetic traits from
previous generations of microorganisms. Some of these traits show them how to
identify and process food, how to excrete waste products, and how to reproduce.
CHAPTER 8: RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY
Who we are and what we are going to be is programmed into our genes. The
same is true for microbes. This genetic information is encoded into DNA by the
linking of nucleic acids in a specific sequence.
Genetic information can be reordered in a process called genetic engineering.
You’ll learn about genetic engineering and how to recombinant DNA using
DNA technology in this chapter.
CHAPTER 9: CLASSIFICATION OF MICROORGANISMS
There are thousands of microbes and no two are identical, but many have similar
characteristics. Microbiologists have spent years carefully observing
microbes and organizing them into groups by their similarities.
You’ll learn how microbes are classified in this chapter, which enables you to
efficiently identify microbes that you see under a microscope.
CHAPTER 10: THE PROKARYOTES:
DOMAINS ARCHAEA AND BACTERIA
Bacteria are one of the most common microbes that you encounter. Some bacteria
cause disease and other bacteria help you live by aiding in digestion. There
are many different kinds of bacteria; however, all bacteria can be grouped into
four divisions based on the characteristics of their cell walls.
Each division is further divided into sections based on other characteristics,
such as oxygen requirements, motility, shape, and Gram-stain reaction. In this
chapter, you’ll learn how to use these divisions and sections to identify bacteria.
CHAPTER 11: THE EUKARYOTES:
FUNGI, ALGAE, PROTOZOA, AND HELMINTHS
In this chapter you’ll take a close look at the kingdoms of fungi, protista, and
animalia. These are microbes that are commonly known as fungi, algae, protozoa, and helminths.
Eukaryotes are a type of microbe and are different from bacteria and viruses.
However, they, too, are beneficial to us. They supply food, remove waste, and
cure disease (in the form of antibiotics). And as bacteria, some eukaryotes also cause disease.
CHAPTER 12: VIRUSES, VIROIDS, AND PRIONS
Probably one of the most feared microbes is a virus because often there is little
or nothing that can be done to kill it. Once you’re infected, you can treat the
symptoms, such as a runny nose and watery eyes, but otherwise you must let the
virus run its course.
Did you ever wonder why this is case? If so, then read this chapter for the
answer and learn what a virus is, how viruses live, and which diseases they cause.
CHAPTER 13: EPIDEMIOLOGY AND DISEASE
It’s flu season and you can only hope that you don’t become infected—otherwise
you’ll have ten days of chills, sneezing, and isolation. No one will want to come
close to you for fear of catching the flu.
In this chapter, you’ll learn about diseases like the flu and how diseases are
spread. You’ll also learn how to take simple precautions to control and prevent
the spread of diseases.
CHAPTER 14: IMMUNITY
Inside your body there is a war going on. An army of B cells, T cells, natural
killer cells, and other parts of your immune system are on the defense. These
cells seek microbes to rip apart before any of them can give you a runny nose,
cough, or that dreaded feverish feeling.
The immune system is your body’s defense mechanism: Its “soldiers” surround,
neutralize, and destroy foreign invaders before they can do harm. In this
chapter you’ll learn about your immune system and how it gives you daily protection
against invading microbes.
CHAPTER 15: VACCINES AND DIAGNOSING DISEASES
Think about this: Each year millions of people pay their doctor to inject them
with the flu virus. On the surface that may not make sense, but after reading this
chapter you’ll find that it makes perfect sense because this injection is actually
a vaccination against the flu.
A vaccine prevents you from catching a certain disease because it has elements
of that disease, triggering your body to create antibodies to the disease.
You’ll learn about vaccines and antibodies in this chapter.
CHAPTER 16: ANTIMICROBIAL DRUGS
“Doc, give me a pill to knock out whatever is causing me to be sick!” All of us
say this whenever we come down with an illness. All we want is a magic pill that
makes us feel better. Sometimes that magic pill—or injection—contains a
microbe that seeks out and destroys pathogenic microbes, which are diseasecausing microbes.
In this chapter you’ll learn about antimicrobial drugs that are given as
chemotherapy to cure disease. These antimicrobial drugs contain microbes that
kill other microbes.
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Table of Contents
Introduction xiii
Acknowledgments xix
CHAPTER 1 The World of the Microorganism 1
Types of Microorganisms 2
What Is a Microorganism? 4
What’s in a Name: Naming and Classifying 5
How Small Is a Microorganism? 7
Your Body Fights Back 7
History of the Microscope 9
How Do Organisms Appear? 10
Germ Theory 12
Vaccination 15
Killing the Microorganism 16
Quiz 19
CHAPTER 2 The Chemical Elements of Microorganisms 23
Everything Matters 24
Chemical Elements and the Atom 24
A Dinner Table of Elements:
The Periodic Table 27
The Glowing Tale of Isotopes 27
Around They Go: Electronic Configuration 29
Before James There Was Bond . . .
Chemical Bond 29
Decoding Chemical Shorthand 31
I Just Want to See Your Reaction 31
Molarity: Hey, There’s a Mole Amongst Us 36
An Unlikely Pair: Inorganic and Organic 37
The Blueprint of Protein Synthesis 42
The Power House: ATP 44
Quiz 44
CHAPTER 3 Observing Microorganisms 47
Size Is a Matter of Metrics 47
Here’s Looking at You 51
What Big Eyes You Have: Magnification 52
The Microscope 54
Preparing Specimens 60
Quiz 64
CHAPTER 4 Prokaryotic Cells and Eukaryotic Cells 67
Prokaryotic Cells 68
Eukaryotic Cells 78
Quiz 83
CHAPTER 5 The Chemical Metabolism 87
Riding the Metabolism Cycle 87
Catabolic and Anabolic: The Only Reactions
You Need 88
A Little Give and Take: Oxidation-Reduction 88
Making Power: ATP Production 89
What’s Your Name: Naming and
Classifying Enzymes 89
Brewing Up Protein 90
The Magic of Enzymes: Enzyme Activities 90
The Krebs Cycle 94
Fermentation 97
Other Catabolic Pathways 97
Photosynthesis 98
Quiz 100
CHAPTER 6 Microbial Growth and Controlling
Microbial Growth 103
Chemical Requirements for Microbial
Growth 104
Culture Media 105
Phases of Growth 109
Measurements of Microbial Growth 110
Establishing Bacterial Numbers
by Indirect Methods 111
Controlling Microbial Growth 112
Microbial Death Rates 113
Action of Antimicrobial Agents 113
Chemical Agents That Control Microbial
Growth 114
Quiz 116
CHAPTER 7 Microbial Genetics 119
Genetics 120
DNA Replication: Take My Genes, Please! 120
Protein Synthesis 123
Controlling Genes: You’re Under My Spell 124
Mutations: Not a Pretty Copy 125
Quiz 127
CHAPTER 8 Recombinant DNA Technology 131
Genetic Engineering: Designer Genes 132
Gene Therapy: Makes You Feel Better 134
DNA Fingerprinting: Gotcha 134
Recombinant DNA Technology and Society:
Too Much of a Good Thing 136
Quiz 137
CHAPTER 9 Classification of Microorganisms 139
Taxonomy: Nothing to Do with the IRS 139
Nomenclature of Taxonomy: Name Calling 140
Classification: All Natural 146
Quiz 148
CHAPTER 10 The Prokaryotes: Domains Archaea and
Bacteria 151
Archaea 152
Aerobic/Microaerophilic, Motile,
Helical/Vibroid, Gram-Negative Bacteria 154
Gram-Negative Aerobic Rods and Cocci 155
Facultatively Anaerobic Gram-Negative Rods 156
Anaerobic Gram-Negative Cocci and Rods 158
Rickettsias and Chlamydias 158
Mycoplamas 159
Gram-Positive Cocci 160
Endospore-Forming Gram-Positive Rods
and Cocci 162
Regular Nonsporing Gram-Positive Rods 163
Irregular Nonsporing Gram-Positive Rods 164
Mycobacteria 164
Nocardia Forms 165
Quiz 165
CHAPTER 11 The Eukaryotes: Fungi, Algae, Protozoa,
and Helminths 167
Fungi 168
Algae 171
Protozoa 174
Helminths 178
Quiz 182
CHAPTER 12 Viruses, Viroids, and Prions 185
Viruses 185
Viroids 192
Prions 193
Quiz 193
CHAPTER 13 Epidemiology and Disease 197
What Is Epidemiology? 197
Classification of Disease 198
Infection Sites 199
Disease Transmission 201
The Development of Disease 203
Epidemiological Studies 204
Control of Communicable Diseases 205
Nosocomial Infections 206
Who Is Susceptible? 206
Prevention and Control of Nosocomial
Infections 207
Quiz 207
CHAPTER 14 Immunity 211
What Is Immunity? 211
Types of Immunity 213
A Closer Look at Antigens 214
A Closer Look at Binding 214
B Cells 216
Lasting Immunity 218
Antibodies Used for Diagnosing Diseases 218
Chemical Messengers 218
T Cells 219
Macrophages and Natural Killer Cells 220
Quiz 221
CHAPTER 15 Vaccines and Diagnosing Diseases 223
What Is a Vaccine? 223
Types of Vaccines 224
Developing a Vaccine 225
Diagnosing Diseases 226
Quiz 228
CHAPTER 16 Antimicrobial Drugs 231
Chemotherapeutic Agents: The Silver Bullet 231
Antimicrobial Activity: Who to Attack? 233
The Attack Plan 235
Exploring Antimicrobial Drugs 237
Chemotherapy Tests 246
Quiz 247
Final Exam 249
Answers to Quiz and Exam Questions 265
Index 269
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